Science’s development over time.
Science is the study of the natural world at its most basic level. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens, humans have needed to recognize common patterns in nature to survive. The Sun and Moon repeat their movements periodically. While some emotions are easy to see, such as the daily “motion of the Sun,” others are more complex, such as the annual “motion of the Sun.” Both motions are related to critical terrestrial events. The basic rhythm of human existence is day and night. The seasons determine the movement of animals, upon which humans have relied for thousands of years for their survival. The importance of the seasons has increased with the advent of agriculture. Failing to identify the right time to plant could result in starvation. Science is simply the study of natural processes. It has been around since the beginning of time.totally science
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But, just because you recognize regularities doesn’t mean science is complete. Regularities could be just human constructs. Humans jump to conclusions. Humans jump to conclusions because chaos is not something that can be tolerated. Therefore, the mind constructs regularities even though none are there. For example, the appearance of comets in the Middle Ages predicted a significant upheaval. The Norman Conquest of Britain was the result of this comet. An independent analysis of data must establish fundamental regularities. To avoid generalizations, science must be skeptical.
Even when mathematically expressed as laws of nature, regularities are not always satisfactory for everyone. Some argue that understanding the laws requires explanations. The most significant disagreement is in the area of causation. For example, modern quantum mechanics has abandoned the search for causality and focuses only on the mathematical description. On the other hand, modern biology thrives upon causal chains that allow the understanding of physiological, evolutionary, and physical processes through the analysis of the activities of entities like molecules, cells, or organisms. Even if explanation and causation are accepted as necessary, science is not clear on what types of causes or possibilities. Let’s suppose that the history of science makes any sense. It is essential to examine the past according to its terms. Natural philosophers appealed for causes that modern scientists would reject throughout the history of science. Spiritual and divine forces were considered natural and necessary until the end of the 18th century and in some areas like biology well into the 19th century.
Certain conventions governed appeal to God, the gods, or spirits. It was held that Gods and spirits could not act entirely arbitrarily. A propitiation would be the correct response and not a rational investigation. Humans could discover the rational order of things because the deity or deities themselves were rational or bound by rational principles. Original scientific work could be stimulated by faith in the ultimate rationality or creator of the universe. All of Kepler’s laws and Newton’s absolute space, and Einstein’s rejection that quantum mechanics is probabilistic were based on theological assumptions, not scientific ones. The ultimate intelligibility and meaning of phenomena have always required a rational guide spirit for sensitive interpreters. Einstein’s assertion that it is not humankind that understands the world but the wonder of it all is a notable example of this idea.
Science is defined as knowledge of natural regularities that have been subjected to some level of skeptical rigor and explained with rational causes. A final warning is needed—one last caution. Nature can only be understood through the senses. The dominant ones are sight, touch, and hearing. Human perceptions of reality are biased towards the objects of these senses. With the inventions of instruments such as the microscope, telescope, and Geiger counter, a more comprehensive range of phenomena was possible within the realm of our senses. Science is incomplete, and progress in science depends on the perception of phenomena.
This article gives a comprehensive overview of science’s development to understand and study the world. It covers the early stages of noting significant regularities in nature through the revolutionary 20th-century revolution in the idea of reality. You can find more detailed histories of particular sciences, including those of the 20th and 21st centuries, in the articles biology, earth science, and physical.
Science and natural philosophy
Precritical science
Science, as we have seen, appeared before the invention of writing. It is, therefore, necessary to deduce from archaeological remains the contents of this science. It is clear that prehistoric humans were keen observers of nature and kept track of the seasons and times of each year through cave paintings and regular scratches of bone and reindeer ears. A sudden surge of activity around 2500 BCE seemed to have been of scientific significance. Large stone structures dating from this era are found in Great Britain and Northwestern Europe. Stonehenge, located on the Salisbury Plain, England, is one of the most well-known. It is a remarkable scientific achievement. These structures show high technical and social skills. Moving large stone blocks over long distances and then placing them correctly was not easy. However, Stonehenge and other megalithic structures combine religious and astronomical purposes. Their designs suggest a mathematical sophistication that was only discovered in the middle of the 20th century. Stonehenge is a circular structure, but other megalithic structures are egg-shaped. They were built on mathematical principles that require at most practical knowledge of the Pythagorean Theorem: the square of the hypotenuse in a right triangle equals the sum of squares from the two other sides. This theorem or the Pythagorean numbers generated from it seems to have been well-known in Asia, the Middle East, and Neolithic Europe for at least two millennia before the birth of Pythagoras.(totally science )
The combination of astronomy and religion was crucial to the development of science in the early days. It can be found in Mesopotamia (though it is less common than elsewhere), China, Central America, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. Early humankind was fascinated by the spectacle of the heavens. Its discernible order and regularity, highlighted by exceptional events like comets and neutrons, and the unique motions of planets, made it an attractive intellectual puzzle. The human mind couldn’t do better than to look at the heavens for specific knowledge in its quest for order and regularity. For the next 4,000-years, astronomy was the crown of sciences (solidly bonded to theology).
Science in its mature form developed only in the West. It is interesting to look at the protoscience in other areas. This is mainly because, until very recently, Western science was far superior to this knowledge.
China
Astronomy is widely believed to be the first science to emerge, as has been stated. Because of its close relationship to religion, astronomy had a ritual aspect that encouraged the growth and development of mathematics. Chinese savants developed a calendar and methods for plotting the positions of planetary constellations early on. Changes in the heavens were indicative of changes on Earth, as the Chinese believed the entire universe was connected. Astrology and astronomy were integrated into the Chinese government system from the beginning of the Chinese state’s 2nd millennium BCE. To maintain legitimacy and order, the Chinese bureaucracy evolved a specific calendar. It resulted from an unprecedented system of astronomical observations, records, and observations that made it possible to create star catalogs, observations of eclipses, and novae, which can be found today.
The emphasis in other sciences was on practicality. It was the main focus for the Chinese, who were almost the only ancient people to have not filled the cosmos full of gods and demons whose wills determined the events. It was expected that order would be inherent. It was up to humans to discover and describe this order and make a profit from it. The state promoted chemistry, or rather alchemy, medicine, geography, and technology, and prospered. The Chinese could used their practical knowledge at a high level to solve practical problems for hundreds of years. This level was not possible in the West before the Renaissance.
India
India was the first country to study astronomy. It was used for both religious and practical purposes. The primary focus was on the solar and lunar movements. The fixed stars supported these luminaries. Indian mathematics appears to have been very advanced, with particular sophistication in algebraic and geometrical techniques. This branch was undoubtedly stimulated by the flexibility of Indian numeration, which was later introduced into the West as the Hindu Arabic numerals.
America
The Maya of Central America was not like India, China, or other Asian civilizations. They built upon existing cultures and created a complex society where astrology and astronomy played essential roles. The determination of the calendar had both religious and practical significance. Both solar and lunar eclipses, as well as the position of Venus, where required. This astronomy did not require sophisticated mathematics. Nevertheless, the Mayan calendar was clever and the result of careful observation.
Middle East
Two situations existed in the cradles of Western civilization in Egypt and Mesopotamia. A host of Egyptian benevolent gods guaranteed that Egypt would have cosmic order. Egypt, unlike China, was a peaceful, charming country. Its rugged geography frequently produced devastating floods, earthquakes, and severe storms that decimated crops. It was difficult for Egyptians to believe that everything ended with death. It was, therefore, a substantial intellectual and physical effort to preserve life after death. This preoccupation is evident in pyramids and Egyptian theology. Religion answered all of the crucial questions, so Egyptians didn’t spend too much time on speculations about the universe. Astrological significance was given to the stars and planets by assuming that the major heavenly bodies “rule” the land when in the ascendant. The seven-day week emerged, which followed the five planets and the Sun. Astronomy was still primarily concerned with the calculations required to predict the annual flood of the Nile, which is a life-giving river. This required very little mathematics and was of no importance.
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